Fact Sheet
   

• Lake Malawi outflow contributes 95% of electricity in Malawi.

• Woodfuel provides over 90% of the country’s wood/charcoal energy requirements.

• Siltation has affected Nkula Hydro Electric Power station necessitating dredging.

• Rural households consume 60% of fuelwood, tobacco and tea use 20%, while industry and urban areas use 10% each.

• The Ministry commissioned Kapichira Hydro Electric Power Station in September 2000 to boost power supply in the country.

• 91% of the country’s electricity is generated from hydro power

• Only 4% of the population is served with electricity

• There are only 392 registered industries.

• In 1999 mineral exploration was valued at 1.4 billion Kwacha and employed 3700 people.

• Mulanje bauxite mining resurfaced.

• Water pollution is severe in Mudi, Naperi and Limbe Rivers in Blantyre; Chatuwa stream, Mchesi and Lilongwe Rivers in Lilongwe and Lunyangwa River in Mzuzu.

• Brick burning substitution campaign launched in 2000 to release pressure on woodfuel.

• Local authorities are without the capacity to monitor pollution in soil, water and air.

• Blantyre City has the best waste collection system but only 30 % of waste is collected and disposed of properly.

• The disposal of industrial waste in urban areas is uncontrolled.

• Industrial wood consumption can be expected to increase due to the high rate of urbanisation (6.8% per annum) unless a substitute source of energy can be found

10.1 INDUSTRY

10.1.1 Introduction

The industrial sector in Malawi is mainly small and medium scale with the exception of a few enterprises that fall under the large scale category. These small and medium scale enterprises support the socio-economic status of the country through the provision of employment and their contribution to the gross domestic product. According to the National Statistics Office, the industrial sector’s share to the GDP in 1995 was 16%, but declined to 12% in 1999.

Apart from the positive contribution to the economic development of the country, the sector affects the environment both positively and negatively, directly and indirectly. Industrial processes are one of the sources of environmental problems. The entire life cycle of a product from raw material production to the end of its life have significant impacts on the environment.

10.1.2 State of industry and environment

According to the 1998 Medium Business Economic Survey by the National Statistical Office, there were a total of 22,361 registered enterprises in Malawi, (10,415 in the South, 7,772 in the Centre and 4,174 in the North) (NSO, 1998). Despite the decreasing overall contribution to the country's GDP, this number represents an increase compared to 1994.

The revised International Standard for Industrial Classification (ISIC) categorises for the industrial sector are: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing; Mining and Stone Quarrying; Manufacturing; Construction; Trade and Distribution; Transport; Financial Services; Community and Social Services. Most of the business enterprises are engaged in trade and distribution (Figure 10.1.1).

All sectors of industry have impacts on the environment, but the manufacturing sector is focused upon to reflect environmental costs. The manufacturing industry can be classified into: food products and beverages; tobacco products; textiles; leather products; printing and publishing; petroleum refining and mixing; chemicals and chemical products; rubber and plastic products; fabrication of metal products; motor vehicles and trailers. The manufacturing sector in Malawi is concentrated within the three main cities of Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu (Figure 10.1.2).

In cities, most of the enterprises are located within the industrial sites. In Mzuzu, Luwinga industrial site contains most of the medium and large scale operations. In Lilongwe, there are four main industrial sites, namely: Kanengo, Area 28, Area 4 and Biwi Triangle. In Blantyre, the industries are located at Makata/Ginnery Corner, Limbe, Maselema, Chirimba and Maone Industrial Park.

In addition to these industrial parks, there are other industrial hot spots in other parts of the country. These include, for example, Raiply in Chikangawa, Vizara in Nkhata Bay District, Ethanol Company in Dwangwa, Changalume Cement Factory in Zomba District, tea processing companies in Thyolo and Mulanje Districts, leather tanning in Liwonde and sugar factories in Dwangwa and Nchalo.

The manufacturing sector is comprised of different types and sizes of companies. Figure 10.1.3 shows the distribution of industries in Blantyre City.

In smaller urban centres such as the UEMP towns, manufacturing is not nearly as dominant in terms of employment as it is in the larger urban areas. Figure 10.1.4 illustrates that trade and distribution has the bigger share of employment in these smaller centres. This is reflective of the role that these settlements play as service centres to the surrounding rural and peri-urban hinterlands. While trade and distribution is not likely to be as energy intensive as manufacturing, it does create a demand for solid waste disposal, as it involves the breaking up of bulk goods and repackaging them for sale. The construction sector also plays an important role in providing for urban employment in urban areas outside the secondary centres.

10.1.2.1 Industrial development

In the Centre and North, the number of registered industrial premises under the Occupational Safety and Health Directorate is 240. However, the number of registered companies per year has been decreasing since 1990 as data for Lilongwe demonstrates (Figure 10.1.5).

10.1.2.2 Energy consumption by industries

Industrial processes require energy input to drive the machinery and other manufacturing processes. In some cases energy is used to produce another form of energy. At the Sugar Corporation of Malawi (SUCOMA), baggasse is used as a fuel to produce steam used for drying, heating, boiling and for driving turbines to produce electricity. Most industrial processes require steam for heating, drying and evaporation. Generally, the major form of energy required by the industry consists of electricity and steam.

Industries in the four UEMP towns generally rely on electricity or coal as a source of energy for their activities, although most of them keep an emergency stock of charcoal for use during power cuts. The use of charcoal by industry in these towns is negligible compared to its use by residential households.

10.1.2.3 Work environment and health

Polluting industrial processes exasperate poor work conditions, escalating industrial accidents and occupational diseases. The wastes generated from the processes are a threat to the health of workers and also to the general environment. Lack of monitoring equipment, inadequate enforcement and obsolete technology in most of the enterprises contribute significantly to the deteriorating work environment and affect people's health both within and outside the workplace. Workers are mostly exposed to both chemical and physical hazards due to emissions, improper use, unsafe handling and lack of knowledge. Very often, chemicals that affect workers’ health are harmful to the environment.

Poor working conditions and procedures also lead into a large number of occupational injuries, accidents and dangerous occurrences that sometimes result into loss of property and life (Figure 10.1.6).

By minimizing waste generation at the source, the effects on individuals and the environment can be improved. Industrial diseases are known to occur as a result of hazardous working conditions and whenever exposure exceeds the threshold limit value. Common occupational diseases reported include dermatitis, asbestosis, cancer, silicosis, pneumoconiosis and tuberculosis.

10.1.2.4 Industrial environmental quality and waste management

Industrial environmental quality can be characterised by the quality of air and water discharge from the industrial operations. Industrial processes are one major source of solid and liquid wastes causing problems to the environment. Once produced, these wastes are dumped indiscriminately into nearby water bodies, along road sides and open spaces. Table 10.1.1 shows the solid waste disposal sites in Blantyre. Only 30% of the wastes produced are disposed of appropriately. The waste management problems are associated with many factors including:

• Inadequate resources for waste management operations.

• Limited number of refuse collection vehicles.

• Inadequate capacity for inspections and monitoring.

• Lack of comprehensive waste management policy.

• No specific standards and waste classifications.

• Inadequate facilities for collection, transportation, storage, treatment and disposal of wastes.

• No solid waste disposal sites in rural areas.

The City of Blantyre has only one skip truck and five tipper trucks for waste management operations. Also, the city has no tractor of its own and hires a bulldozer from the private sector to level the land fill once every two weeks. These factors constrain waste management operations in the city.

10.1.2.5 Waste production, disposal and pollution

The key issues in the industrial sector include water and air pollution, ground water contamination, waste generation, improper waste disposal and poor working environment. Inefficient production processes, archaic technologies and lack of waste management systems contribute significantly to the generation of waste materials. Lack of adequate refuse collection and disposal services in industrial sectors magnifies the problem, especially in the urban set-up. Consequently, the wastes produced are accumulated in dark corners or dumped indiscriminately. In Mzuzu, for example, there is no central sewer system. Liquid wastes are accumulated in septic tanks to be cleared by the City Assembly who in turn release the liquid waste at an open quarry in the Ching'ambo area for the wastes to dry. Most of the wastes are never collected, but are left to soak into the surroundings. Table 10.1.2 shows the liquid disposal sites in Blantyre. Weaknesses in legislation without appropriate monitoring and penalties give the industry an opportunity to dump. This is coupled with inadequate co-ordination among sectoral agencies having responsibility for the enforcement and policing of legislation.

Leakage from filling stations is a special problem and if left untackled will cause expensive clean up exercises in years to come.

The disposal of industrial waste in the UEMP towns is uncontrolled as the town assemblies do not have the capacity to ensure that industry adheres to solid waste management practices. Most of the waste is inert and provides little threat to the environment, however, there are no facilities for dealing with potentially poisonous effluents and leachates. Wood waste from carpentry and carving workshops is usually burn and the smoke affects surrounding residential neighbourhoods.

10.1.2.6 Clean technologies

Obsolete technologies are responsible for inefficient production systems and processes that lead to large volumes of wastes and effluent that could be avoided if appropriate technologies are being used. Cleaner technologies require process modifications and material substitutions to reduce the production of wastes and improve on the efficiency and quality of production. The approach being used is to seek ways to modify manufacturing processes by raw material substitution or process modification to produce products more safely and with less waste. These modifications can be at the process level, material level, component level, system level and at strategy level.

Options include substitution with less toxic materials, replacement of processes, installation of new technologies, new waste reduction technologies and new and more accurate equipment.

Table 10.1.4 illustrates the elements of pollution for the Naperi, Limbe and Mudi Rivers. In Lilongwe, the rivers polluted by effluent discharges include Chatuwa in Area 18, Lingadzi and Lilongwe.

10.1.2.7 Industrial licenses

Industrial licenses are issued by various institutions for different purposes. Some of the institutions include the Department of Mines, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Ministry of Local Government, Ministry of Lands, Housing and Physical Planning Surveys, Malawi Bureau of Standards and the Department of Environmental Affairs under the Environment Management Act of 1996. Licensing institutions need to revise their procedures in order to promote a cleaner environment.

10.1.3 Response of industry to pressures

Some companies are responding to environmental requirements by establishing environmental management systems and getting certified under the ISO 14001 management system. This system promotes the development and use of cleaner technologies for a sustainable environment.

10.1.4 Recommendations

For sustainable development in the industrial sector, the following recommendations need to be pursued seriously:

Industries needs to be trained to embark on waste minimisation programs and the adoption of cleaner technologies. Presently, procurement of technologies is not based on principles of cleaner technologies as a means of achieving better working conditions.

Reduce the demand for fuelwood by improving energy efficiency of traditional cooking appliances and introducing economically viable alternative sources of energy.

• Reduce tariffs on electricity to enable many households to afford it.

• Strengthen the capacity of local communities to adequately deal with waste management.

• Provide regular maintenance of sewers and sewage treatment plants to prevent leakages and spillages.

• Promote industrial and environmental education on waste management systems and encourage recycling and re-use programs.

• Conduct regular inspections in industrial premises to determine environmental and safety status of the sites.

Figure 10.1.1 Employment by industry in Malawi

Source: National Statistical Office, 2000

Figure 10.1.3 Types of industries in Blantyre

Source: Department of Occupational Safety and Health

Figure 10.1.6 Industrial accidents in Blantyre 1990 - 1999

Source: Occupational Safety and Health Directorate

10.2 ENERGY

10.2.1 Introduction

Malawi’s energy need is dependent on a balance of 93% fuelwood, 3.5% petroleum, 2.3% electricity, 1.0 % coal and 0.2% other biomass fuels. The Malawi government recognises that there is a direct link between rural development and renewable energy. The massive use of traditional energy sources is an indication of acute poverty and a rural based economy. In this regard, sustainable and renewable energy issues have been included in the Poverty Alleviation Policy Framework to a certain extent.

Fuelwood consumption is dominated by rural households who consume 60%, urban households 10%, the tea industry and tobacco estates 20%, small scale industries 8% and urban industries 2%. It is estimated that wood consumption exceeds sustainable supply by 3.3 million cubic metres per year. This situation is aggravated by population growth currently at 2.0%, expansion of the estate sector, rampant poverty and an underdeveloped renewable energy sector.

The cost of conventional energy sources, such as petroleum, electricity (current costs for grid connection) and coal are unaffordable by the majority of the population. This pushes them into permanent dependency on fuelwood in the absence of other alternatives. To overcome the energy scarcity problem, there is need to identify strategies which would develop the renewable energy sector in order to move away from dependency on traditional wood fuels to other energy sources, such as mini and micro hydro electricity, biogas, solar and wind energy production.

It is important to include afforestation in the renewable energy programme and seriously examine the need to conduct research and development in the renewable energy sector, since it may not be possible to alter the energy demand pattern for the majority of Malawians.

Efforts that have been undertaken and are underway in the sustainable and renewable energy sector, including biomass briquetting, biomass powered electricity generation, afforestation programmes, biogas production and utilisation, improved charcoal stoves, pine charcoal utilisation, ethanol utilisation, wind and solar energy. Some work has also been done on community perception on sustainable and renewable energy sources.

Constraints in the under developed sustainable and renewable energy sector include institutional, economic and socio-cultural issues. In order to promote the development and utilisation of sustainable and renewable energy sources in Malawi, new approaches and strategies have taken into account issues of financing, training, management, development and the creation of an enabling policy, setting of priorities in the energy sector, industrial sector development and marketing, research and development, capacity building, monitoring and evaluation and the identification of beneficiaries.

10.2.2 The state of the energy sector

Approximately 90% of the Malawian population depends on firewood and crop residues for cooking and water heating, and paraffin for lighting. Only about 4% of the population have access to electricity out of which less than 1% reside in the rural areas.

10.2.2.1 Petroleum

Malawi is a non-oil producing country and imports about 97% of refined petroleum products. Ethanol that is locally produced is blended with petrol and constitutes the remaining 3% (Figure 10.2.1). Although natural gas is used, its contribution to the national energy consumption is not known. The liquid fuels (petrol, diesel, paraffin, Jet Al, Avgas and ethanol) are required in various sectors to foster socio-economic development. These liquid fuels constitute about 3.5% of the total energy requirements. The transport sector accounts for 50% of the liquid fuel needs, while industry and household needs account for 40% and 10%, respectively. Paraffin is largely used for lighting, while its use for heating and cooking is limited. Use of paraffin and natural gas for heating and cooking would reduce the rate of deforestation in the country.

Combustion of petroleum products produces hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, lead and particulate matter that cause atmospheric pollution. The fossil oils contain sulphur which forms sulphur dioxide, which is a precursor of acid rain. These, therefore, affect the quality of air, contributing to climate change and environmental degradation. The use of ethanol as a fuel, pure or as a blending component, would slow the rise of atmospheric carbon monoxide. Downstream activities, such as spillage and leakage from trucks and train cargoes, seepage from storage facilities and filling stations may lead to pollution of ground water and rivers and fire accidents. More specifically, oil spills affect river biota viability, onshore social and financial costs and damage to organisms such as plankton, pelagic fish and birds.

10.2.2.2 Coal

The Mchenga coal mine is the only operating coal mine in the country. Coal production from this mine currently stands at 7,500 tonnes per month and satisfies the domestic and export markets. Table 10.2.1 reveals coal production. The main Malawian consumers are the tobacco, sugar, beer brewing and textile industries. Exports to the southern region of Tanzania started in 1997 satisfying the demand by the cement and paper industries there.

Malawi continues to import coal from Moatize in Mozambique to satisfy demand by the major coal consumers, most of whom are located in the Southern Region of the country. The reason for the continued coal imports from Mozambique is that Mchenga coal mine is about 900 km from Blantyre, the main industrial city, while Moatize in Mozambique is only 90 km away from Blantyre. This distance makes the landed cost of Mchenga coal in Blantyre (US$ 55 per tonne) 3 times more expensive than the Moatize coal (US$ 17 per tonne). Factors, such as the poor planning of transport networks in terms of re-routing of coal by lake or the construction of a rail line to the coal mine, and inadequate co-ordination in economic planning by the Government has contributed to the high cost of coal.

Coal produces a lot of gaseous by-products when burning. These products include carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. These by-products are hazardous to life and the environment. One other processing product of coal is coal dust. In some cases this dust collects all over the place and can cause problems to the environment surrounding the mine.

Non renewable energy sources, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels. When burned for thermal power production and transportation, fossil fuels release green house gases, such as carbon dioxide and acid gases e.g. sulphur dioxide. It is believed that global warming due to an increase of green house gases in the atmosphere will alter natural vegetation, wildlife habitats, growing seasons for crops and the distributions of pests and diseases. Exhaust fumes from vehicles pollute the air impacting on the health of the people, especially those living in large cities. Heavy metals and nitrogen oxides are examples of pollutants released by car engines.

Fluctuations in the production of coal has had an impact on the usage of other energy sources as companies have had to switch to other sources, such as fuelwood and electricity.

10.2.2.3 Electricity

The power sector is dominated by a publicly owned utility, Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM). Currently, the ESCOM Act has been revised and an Electricity Act has been produced to remove ESCOM’s monopoly and regulate the power sector. This will allow other players to participate in electricity generation, transmission and distribution in the country. ESCOM has extended its commercially operated inter-connected grid to peri-urban and some rural areas under its Rural Electrification Programme which is an integral component of the Poverty Alleviation Programme. However, because of the subsistence and low-technology nature of the rural economy of Malawi, the majority of the rural areas fail to provide the minimum requirements to make it financially attractive for any commercial investors.

Of the country’s installed capacity of 304 megawatts (MW), 91% is hydro and 9% is thermal, servicing about 4% of the population. It is estimated that only 30% of the urban population and less than 1% of the rural population has access to the public supply system. This is a very low coverage by SADC regional standards, whose average coverage rate is 20%. It is estimated that in the short term (up to 2003) the demand for electricity in Malawi will grow at an annual average rate of 6% compared to the average annual regional growth rate of 3.5%. It is expected that the estimated growth in demand will rise if the potential major development activities, such as bauxite and various other mining activities that are in the pipeline materialise.

Over 90% of electricity generation is from hydro power plants located along the Shire River which is fed by Lake Malawi. Over the years, persistent droughts and sedimentation resulting from erosion in the catchment areas have resulted in low lake levels and reduced flow of the Shire River to well below the required speed of 170m³ per second. This has affected generation down stream such that demand is sometimes not adequately met as there are no reliable alternatives to hydropower. Further, clearing of land for agricultural purposes and poor agricultural practices have resulted in environmental degradation of the catchment areas of not only the Shire River, but also other rivers, which have potential sites for hydro plants. The siltation problem has resulted in rapid wear and tear of generation equipment and the service providers incur considerable expenses in silt-removal.

Although the Government's macro-economic policies emphasise rural electrification as a means of improving the quality of life of the majority of the population and promoting their socio-economic development, it has become apparent that the fulfillment of this goal cannot be achieved solely through the extension of the national grid due to economic reasons. Grid expansion is very costly in view of the comparably small amount of electricity that the rural population requires and can afford. It is unlikely that the population living a few kilometres away from the grid will be connected to it in the near future, even where ESCOM identifies a major economic activity warranting grid extension.

10.2.2.4 Rural Electrification Programme

The Rural Electrification Programme is an integral component of the Government's social development policy for poverty alleviation. To this end, a Rural Electrification Technical Committee has been established under the chairmanship of the Department of Energy Affairs.

To implement the Rural Electrification Programme, a Rural Electrification Unit is being established in the Energy Affairs Department to be responsible for the planning and financing of the programme. ESCOM will still be contracted to implement the programme. A big part of the objectives of the Rural Electrification Programme will be taken care of by the National Sustainable and Renewable Energy Programme.

10.2.2.5 Mini and micro-hydro power generation

Malawi has several rivers that have the potential for mini and micro-hydro power generation in the country. Most of the sites have been identified, but not studied in detail. Currently, only one mini-hydro power station on the Wovwe River in Karonga District in the Northern Region has been established. The installed capacity is 4.5 MW and currently the plant serves Karonga, Rumphi and Mzuzu city. It is envisaged that a power line will soon be extended from Karonga to Chitipa District.

Technology is available for micro-hydro power generation. This generation unit comprises a complete self-contained unit for isolated operation, equipped with an automatic controller to maintain a virtually constant frequency with reference to varying load demand. Thus, this facility allows electricity to be generated in most parts of the country, where presently transmission lines are too costly to build.

Figure 10.2.2 shows how much power ESCOM has generated over the years and how much has been consumed on average. So far ESCOM is meeting the electricity requirements of the country, although blackouts are common, especially in the wet season due to electricity distribution interruptions.

10.2.2.6 Woodfuel

Woodfuel (firewood and charcoal) remains the dominant source of energy in Malawi's economy. It is a major source of energy for rural and urban households, formal export industries, such as tobacco and tea and informal industries, such as brick making and fish processing. Demand for woodfuel in 1996 was estimated at 15.2 million cubic metres, growing at 2% per annum. However, the actual consumption was lower as indicated in Table 10.2.2. In 1996 about 75% of the total consumption was consumed by households in the rural areas. According to the energy forecasts both households and industries will continue to be highly dependent on woodfuel. Table 10.2.3 reveals wood consumption by sector from 1989-1995.

Demand for woodfuel exceeds the sustainable supply and the deficit is increasing every year. Urban households consume nearly all the charcoal produced in Malawi. The decline in woodfuel availability has resulted in some women (who are the main energy fetchers) travelling long distances and spending a full day to collect over 35 kg of a headload and transporting it over a distance of 5-15 km.

The Energy Studies Unit estimates per capita wood consumption to be 680 kg/year for rural populations and 1,120 kg wood equivalent/year for urban populations (includes conversion from charcoal). Malawi’s high rate of urbanisation means that wood consumption as an absolute figure can be expected to increase in the future unless as substitute source of energy can be found. An estimated 94% of the domestic urban fuelwood and charcoal equivalent is derived from indigenous woodlands outside reserved land, while 98% of domestic rural fuelwood is derived from indigenous woodland. One of the technologies to reduce this over dependence upon indigenous woodland is the manufacture of briquettes.

10.2.2.7 Wood consumption within the estate sub-sector

Agro-industrial production of major export crops depends almost 100% on woodfuels. The tobacco industry is the biggest biomass consumer in the agricultural sector and relies heavily on wood from forests and woodlands on customary land and government forest reserves. The tea estates are estimated to be more or less self-sufficient in wood. Of a 1984/85 sample of tea estates totaling 43,908 hectares, 16.75% of the land area consisted of fuel-wood plantations (Price Waterhouse, 1987, cited in Mkandawire et al. 1990).

10.2.2.8 Wind energy

Wind can be used to generate electricity in the same way as fast flowing water can be used to generate hydroelectric power. The movement of wind turns the propeller that in turn drives a wind turbine to generate electricity. Wind energy has been successfully used in generating electricity. Examples include the United States of America, Denmark and pumping water in Kenya and Botswana.

The Department of Meteorological Services has reported that areas such as Chitipa, Rumphi, Mzimba, Balaka and Chileka have wind speeds of more than 4.7m/s and therefore have potential for electricity generation using wind (Table 10.2.4).

A hybrid wind/solar system was installed at Ntonda Distance Education Centre (Ntcheu District) in 1991 by Chancellor College in order to generate electricity for lighting.

10.2.2.9 Solar energy potential in Malawi

The average insulation is in the order of about 21.1 MJ per square metre per day (5.86Kh/day). In specific locations, such as the Lower Shire, 27 MJ per square metre is normal during the hot season. This means that Malawi is well placed to utilise solar energy for a range of applications, from photovoltaic conversion to electrical energy to direct thermal usage to raise the temperature of water.

Photovoltaic systems have found uses in rural areas away from the national grid. In total there are about 5000 installed solar photovoltaic systems in Malawi, out of which 2500 systems are not operating. Popular opinion is that solar energy should be harnessed to fill supply gaps in the national energy market. As such, it may be desirable that most solar energy applications be targeted at meeting the energy needs of those consumers whose access to conventional energy, particularly electricity, is limited either due to low disposable income or remote geographical locations relative to the national grid. With this background, the most suitable applications for solar systems in Malawi include:

• portable lanterns
• household lighting systems
• institutional lighting and power generation
• vaccine/rural refrigeration
• pumping for community water supply
• pumping for irrigation
• electric fencing
• remote communication systems

Thermal solar energy is used for heating water and air. Solar water heaters have been installed in boarding schools, hospitals and private houses.

The Malawi Industrial Research and Technology Development Centre (MIRTDC) has disseminated cabinet solar dryers to several NGOs and local farmers. This dryer is mainly used for drying bananas, green vegetables and other seasonal agricultural produce.

The MIRTDC through its Research and Development activities developed a solar still which is being used by Salt Production Clubs. This was meant to provide an alternative fuel for boiling the saline solution.

Several NGOs in Malawi are disseminating the box type solar cooker, but because this technology does not fit normal cooking methods, its reception in Malawi has been very poor, unlike the mbaula stove which is more popular.

10.2.3 Reasons for an underdeveloped energy sector

The factors influencing energy deprivation are as follows:

10.2.3.1 Lack of clear Government policy on energy in general

Although the Government had developed a National Energy Plan in 1988 and undertaken some activities that have dealt with the development of renewable energy in the country together with other players, there has been no comprehensive government policy and strategy to promote the use of these renewable energy technologies. However, the Energy Policy should be out soon.

 

10.2.3.2 Inadequate awareness of the importance of energy, more especially renewable energy, in the social and economic development of the country

The Government and other actors have not normally included energy in most of the priority programmes such as the Poverty Alleviation Programme, the Malawi Social Action Fund and other donor funded development programmes. Overall, energy has not been given sufficient attention in policy formulation as evidenced in the Statement of the Development Policy 1987-1996.

 

10.2.3.3 Energy planning is not integrated into the overall socio-economic development planning

Every economic activity requires energy, but despite this fact, energy planning has not been sufficiently integrated into most of the planned socio-economic activities. This has led to most of the development projects, especially in remote areas, not achieving their goals. For instance, most of the schools, dispensaries, community centers constructed in rural areas, would have been more effective if they were provided with a source of energy, such as electricity be it from the grid or solar.

 

10.2.3.4 Lack of an effective and comprehensive institutional framework

Although there is the Department of Energy Affairs, there is no general framework in Malawi through which the development of energy can be promoted. This has led to different groups working on energy development operating individually resulting in fragmented efforts that have not produced tangible results. This has been addressed in the new Energy Policy through the establishment of elaborate governance, structuring and legislation.

 

10.2.3.5 Inadequate co-ordination of the activities

As a result of the inadequate institutional framework, co-ordination of all the efforts undertaken by the Government, research institutions, academic institutions, non governmental organisations and other stakeholders has been haphazard and nearly absent.

10.2.3.6 Affordability

Although it is projected that by the year 2030 wind, solar and biomass power may be cheaper than fossil fuel energy, only a few households can afford the initial costs associated with the installation of these systems. Banks and other financing or lending institutions are reluctant to provide credit for rural electrification projects.

There are no financing arrangements that could provide credit facilities on non-commercial rates to promote the use of other sources of energy and no revolving funds either.

10.2.3.7 Lack of competition

There are very few players involved in the manufacture and supply of renewable energy technologies in the country, hence, the prices are usually high.

10.2.3.8 Lack of direct incentives

There have been complaints that the import duties, as well as surtaxes on energy technologies and appliances are usually too high, although this problem is not only unique to Malawi. According to World Bank estimates, direct fossil fuel subsidies amounted to US$ 220 billion worldwide in 1991. Solar and other renewable energy subsidies were virtually zero. In Malawi, there are no subsidies even on fossil fuels, except a cross subsidy on paraffin.

10.2.3.9 Lack of suitable financing arrangements

Most of the energy projects are micro in nature, appropriate for small scale businesses and as such financial institutions have not shown much interest in funding such projects. Where a person can manage to secure a loan from these financial institutions, the interest rates are usually too high for the loan to be of benefit to the borrower.

10.2.3.10 Lack of capacity in the manufacturing, distribution, installation and maintenance of renewable energy systems

One of the reasons why renewable energy technologies are not widely used in Malawi is the lack of manufacturing capacity of renewable energy technologies components. What is available has been imported at high cost. For successful development and utilisation of energy in Malawi an industrial or manufacturing backup is absolutely a prerequisite. Where manufacturing is attempted most of the raw materials which are used in the manufacturing of energy systems are usually imported into the country. There has been very limited research in the use of local raw materials for the manufacturing of the energy technologies.

10.2.3.11 Lack of necessary information

There is a general lack of public awareness of the energy technologies at all levels of the society, including policy makers, decision makers and the community at large. In addition, there is very little technical information or data concerning each energy source, such as the incidence of insolation, wind speed and extent of biomass. For successful dissemination of information it would require proper packaging of such information to meet the needs of different target groups.

10.2.3.12 Knowledge of market including the energy needs of target groups

Needs assessment surveys to determine individual and community needs of the energy resources in the country have not been conducted. This could have helped to determine the requirements in the development of different sources of energy.

10.2.3.13 Inadequate trained manpower at all levels

Energy planning, management and development does not appear in the training and educational curricula at any level in Malawi. Therefore, although officials attend workshops or short courses, it still takes years to develop a productive degree of competence. The inadequate capacity is a barrier to the initiation and sustainability of energy activities. Technical schools are not focusing sufficiently on energy. As a result people are not trained in the development of energy equipment and its maintenance.

10.2.3.14 Gender insensitivity

In Malawi, many of the projects including those in energy have failed to take off and achieve their goals because the planning and the implementation process has not involved women although women are largely responsible for the management of energy needs. For example, women as collectors of fuelwood have not been involved in the planning and implementation of afforestation programmes

10.2.3.15 Cultural aspects

Some Malawian societies are inhibited from adopting new technologies, like biogas from a pit latrine, because of strong cultural requisites.

10.2.4 Current programs and projects

Malawi, just as most of the countries in East and Central Africa, will sooner or later benefit from several initiatives. The overall objective for these initiatives is to promote the use of renewable energy technologies in Malawi in a sustainable manner. The most notable programmes being implemented by the Department of Energy Affairs are given below.

10.2.4.1 Renewable Energy Programme

According to the final Project Brief Proposal, the UNDP/GEF project will assist local stakeholders in:

• Building local capacities to promote, install and service photovoltaic applications.

• Help to develop and implement favorable regulatory frameworks.

• Facilitate the establishment of viable financial mechanisms for micro-lending in order to address up front investment cost barriers and risk perceptions.

The aim is to demonstrate the viability of investments in photovoltaics and encourage widespread replication. The principal concrete objective of the programme is to install 9,000 off-grid photovoltaics systems by its completion date of 2004.

10.2.4.2 Danish initiative programme

This project has been designed to be implemented as part of DANIDA’s Environment Support Programme (DESP) in Malawi. The major emphasis of the programme is on assistance to environmental actions at district level in order to benefit local rural and urban communities. The Project includes the following activities:

• Photovoltaics electrification at 15 health clinics-pilot project.

• Installation of 6 wind pumps – pilot project.

• Micro-hydro feasibility study.

• Small scale biogas initiative.

• Support for the development of renewable energy standards in Malawi.

• Preparation of a wind atlas for Malawi.

• Feasibility study of Gelfuel, an ethanol based wood fuel alternative

 

10.2.5 Conclusion

The shift from subsistence economies to mass production of primary commodities, and then adding value by using process technology, is a sure way to generate material wealth, whilst simultaneously inviting environmental damage. So, how can energy resources be deployed to increase product availability whilst protecting the environment?

Planners and policy makers should have a basic understanding of the definition, nature and characteristics of ecosystems, materials and energy transformations. Environmental degradation takes place in both rural and urban areas. In rural areas there is deforestation, population growth and mismanagement, while in urban areas there is industrial pollution, chemical and toxic wastes. It is, therefore, necessary to understand the dynamics of human activities vis-à-vis the biosphere: ecology, population, settlements, resources use, technology, pollution and economics.

10.3 MINING

10.3.1 Introduction

Malawi continues to derive over 60% of its foreign exchange earnings from the agricultural sector which contributes about 25% towards real GDP. Mining contributes less than 3% towards GDP, but is expected to grow steadily in the next five years, as evidenced by increased exploration investment and feasibility studies under progress.

Although the environmental impact problems associated with Malawi’s embryonic mining operations are currently not great and are containable, they are likely to become significant with the projected and respective growth of the sector. This growth, coupled with inadequate institutional capacity for the enforcement of environmental management and monitoring programmes, is likely to worsen unless stringent efforts are made to strengthen the industry. In addition there are constraints arising out of inadequate and outdated mining legislation and policy.

10.3.2 Current legislation governing exploration, mining and the environment

Two main categories of operations are listed according to the Mines and Minerals Act, 1981. The first group of operations refers to exploration and mining operations that require obtaining mineral rights. These mainly center on medium to large scale operations. They include Reconnaissance Licences (RL), Exclusive Prospecting Licences (EPL) and Mining Licences (ML). These licences are granted by the Minister responsible for mineral affairs upon recommendation by the Mining Licencing Committee (MLC).

The second group caters for small scale and artisanal mining activities. These are Non-Exclusive Prospecting Licence (NEPL), and Mining Claim Licences (MCL). These make provisions for gemstone, lime, stone aggregate and other artisanal operations. In order to create a conducive marketing outlet for the gemstone and precious stones sector, a Reserved Mineral Licence is available to allow licencees to purchase these from prospectors and local miners. The Commissioner for Mines grants all the three licences on recommendation by the MLC.

A third category exists comprising of Mineral Permits that caters for brick-making, sand collection, hand knapping of stone aggregate, clay moulders and other local operations. These permits are issued by the Office of the District Commissioner of the District, Municipality and City Assemblies following the decentralisation process.

Before any mineral right is granted by the Minister, as in the first category, applicants are required by the Mines and Minerals Act to submit an environmental statement following a thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) with regard to potential damage that may arise from their operations. Similarly, mitigating methods to prevent those potential damages are supposed to be provided through Environmental Management Plans so that proper monitoring and evaluating systems are put in place during construction, development, mining and decommissioning stages.

10.3.3 Mineral development – general

Since the enactment of the Mines and Minerals Act in 1981 mineral related development began to be organised and recognised by the private sector and local populace in Malawi. In the preceeding periods mining operations were mainly restricted to quarrying of stone aggregate and gravel collection for road construction and limestone mining for cement production. Two gold operations in the Lisungwe valley in Ntcheu District and sapphire mining existed on a very limited scale.

In relative terms, the period 1983 to 1991 registered tremendous growth in mineral development as judged by the number of licences granted. This slowed down between 1992 and 1994 and increased steadily again between 1995 and 1999, but still fell short of the peak times of 1988 and 1991 (Table 10.3.1).

10.3.4 Reconnaissance licences

Most reconnaissance licences, granted between 1983 and 1987, were for the exploration of coal, heavy mineral sands and the platinum group of elements in Chikwawa and Nsanje Districts and coal and uranium in Chitipa and Karonga Districts respectively. Licences granted in 1999 and 2000 were for gold, exploration mainly in the Kirk Range areas of Ntcheu, Mwanza and Balaka Districts. The number of licences granted reflects improvements in exploration technologies arising from the use of remote sensing and satellite imagery.

10.3.4.1 Exclusive prospecting licences

These licenses are granted for a period of three years for ground exploration through geochemical, geophysical trenching, intensive ground mapping and drilling operations to ascertain the occurrence of economic minerals. Generally, these produce minimal environmental damage as the operations are not extensive being limited only to trenching and drilling.

Licences have been granted repetitively to a number of investors after expiry of each period. This implies that one area may have been held by a number of operators.

Of the districts explored in the Central Region, Ntcheu had the highest number of licences granted (10), mainly for gold, silver, nickel, corundum and the platinum group elements. Lilongwe and Salima Districts both have a total of nine licences. In Lilongwe District, minerals mainly explored for include gold, pyrite and graphite, while in Salima District it was for heavy mineral sands, graphite and limestone. Dowa District has had two licences granted, mainly for graphite and gypsum. Ntchisi, Nkhota kota and Dedza Districts had only one licence each.

10.3.4.2 Mining licences

Since the enactment of the Mines and Minerals Act in 1983, a total of 69 licences were granted up to 1999. The number of licences granted began modestly with one licence in 1983, to 9 in 1999, with wide fluctuations from year to year.

From 1983 to 1999, the Central Region registered the highest number of mining licences granted with 28 followed by the South at 26 and finally the North at 15. Over 90% of all these licences were for stone aggregate. This development may be attributed, for the last two years, to the increased number of road rehabilitation contracts granted between 1994 and 1999.

With the exception of corundum in Ntcheu District, black granite and silica sands in Mchinji District, heavy mineral sands in Salima District, graphite in Dowa District, corundum and vermiculite in Mwanza District, coal in Nsanje and Rumphi Districts, pink granites in Rumphi District, amazonite (ornamental stones) in the Ezondweni-Mtwalo area of Mzimba District and sodalite at Ilomba Hills in Chitipa District, the rest of the licences were for stone aggregate.

10.3.4.3 Non-Exclusive Prospecting Licenses

From 1983 to 1999, a total of 1146 NEPLs were granted across the country. This type of licence allows the licencee to prospect for minerals before registering a Mining Claim Licence. Concurrently, the licence allows the licencee to mine and sell the mineral products. The Act encourages the holders to register a mining claim to avoid conflicts with other infiltrating operators and productive sectors, such as agriculture. The Northern Region has between 1983 and 1999 registered 649 NEPL holders, whereas the Southern and Central Regions registered 290 and 207 respectively.

Most of the licences (72.7%) were granted for the prospecting of semi-precious stones mainly in Mzimba, Ntcheu, Chikwawa, Chitipa and Nsanje Districts. Correspondingly, recorded exports of semi-precious stones picked up between 1986 and 2000. One major contributing factor for this growth was the establishment of marketing points by Malawi Development Corporation at Mzimba and Blantyre in 1988. MDC operated until 1992 from when there was a decline in the number of licences granted. About 25% of these were for lime production through the burning of limestone, predominantly in Machinga, Blantyre, Salima and Karonga Districts. The rest were for terrazzo stone aggregate knapping mostly in Balaka and Blantyre Districts.

10.3.4.4 Mining Claim Licences

As indicated earlier, these licenses are given to holders of Non-Exclusive Prospecting Licences, who, having been satisfied with occurrences of sought minerals in their prospecting areas, seek to have complete rights to these on a small scale. A total of 165 of these have been granted between 1983 and 1999. They are mainly shared between the two sectors of semi-precious stones and lime making. Mzimba District had the highest number with 53 licences, followed by Balaka and Machinga Districts with 40 licences and Ntcheu District with 22 licences, respectively.

10.3.4.5 Mineral Permits

Mineral Permits are granted by the office of the District Commissioner to brick moulders, sand collectors, clay moulders and other very small operations that do not require full mineral rights at fairy negligible costs. The number of Mineral Permits granted per district is unavailable due to poor records management from almost all District Commissioners’ Offices. Added to this, most of these offices are unable to consistently collect statistics on mineral permits because the revenue so collected as prescribed by the Act from permit holders cannot justify costs incurred on the statistical collection exercise. On the other hand, being not one of the core activities of the Commissioner’s office renders this exercise immaterial.

10.3.4.6 Exploration expenditure

Assumed exploration expenditure rose steadily within the government sector from MK 291,693 in 1983 to MK 4,652,040 in 1995. Pledged expenditure by the external private sector fluctuated significantly between these years from MK 40,000 (lowest in 1987) to MK 14,496,912 (highest in 1990). Because of inadequate mechanism to monitor the flow of this expenditure, these figures are not very reliable. The same applies to locally pledged investments, which rose from MK 7,981 in 1983 to a peak of MK 1,453,540 in 1990. It is estimated that 40% of all the pledged expenditure was actually spent with the exception of uranium prospecting in Karonga District, Rare Earth Elements/Minerals prospecting in Machinga District, Mwabvi coal deposits in Nsanje District and graphite in Katengeza (Dowa District) and Chimutu in Lilongwe District.

10.3.5 Energy consumption in the mining sector

Most of the mining license holders derive their energy requirements from electricity and diesel fuel. The operating open pit mines of Changalume and Livwezi use a combination of all the three energy sources, namely electricity, diesel and coal depending on the type of operation. However, it is estimated that about 65% of this requirement is derived from electricity, with coal only being used in the kilns for roasting limestone into clinker.

Diesel driven compressors form the major power source predominantly in Malawian quarries and in the only underground mine of Mchenga for the operation of pneumatic tools, underground ventilation and other implements.

Limestone mining operations undertaken in Lirangwe, Balaka, Chipoka and Chilumba areas use biomass fuel for energy requirements. On average, 7.2 tonnes of fuelwood converts one tonne of limestone into slaked lime through a customarily built kiln. According to a survey of energy needs by the Department of Mines between 1991 and 1993, the requirements to burn the same amount of limestone to lime in vertical kilns is four tonnes of fuelwood for one tonne of lime produced. This reflects a reduction of 44.4% over the earlier method. Considering that over 82% of producers use custom built kilns, this explains the high level of deforestation around Balaka and Lirangwe areas, and most recently adjacent areas in parts of Mwanza and Ntcheu Districts.

In ceramic works, only the Geological Surveys Department pottery research laboratory at Linthipe and the Malindi pottery continue to rely on electrical furnaces for the production of their pottery ware. Paragon Ceramics, which operates two potteries, one at Dedza and the other in Nkhota Kota, use a combination of fuelwood, saw dust and electricity. On average Paragon Ceramics uses 60 KVA (Kilo Volt Ampere) in energy requirements, while Malindi consumes 30 KVA.

The production of bricks by local communities has predominantly been by the use of fuelwood. Only commercial Chirimba works uses coal imported into the country from Mozambique. The work accounts for less than 1% of consumption in the rural areas for brick making which on average uses 0.5 to 0.625 tonnes of fuelwood per 1000 bricks. The private sector has introduced a brick baking solution that may reduce considerably the amount of fuelwood used in brick making.

Of the number of quarries that have been in operation between 1983 and 1999, most of their energy resource requirements were provided by generators. The average consumption in these remote areas was 50 KVA and operated mostly where new road construction works were undertaken. Quarries close to urban areas were in most cases connected to the ESCOM grid.

10.3.6 Mineral production in general

Generally, production trends of mineral products have been stable with the exception of gemstones, coal and lime.

10.3.6.1 Gemstones production and exports

The year 1997 registered the highest export levels throughout the history of gemstone mining in Malawi with the lowest occurring in 1996. The erratic market prices, combined with the withdrawal of MDC (1988-1992) as an active semiprecious stone dealer in 1992, have been the major reasons for the erratic production and exports. The arrival on the market scene of Lake Valley Minerals and Gem Lanka organization helped in reversing this downward trend between 1996 and 2000. Aquamarines, rubies, sapphires, garnets, amethyst and agates contribute 70–80% of total exports, registering about MK 2.4 million in average declared value. This figure is likely to be higher in a well-established gemstone country since it is believed that many of these stones are undervalued or traded on the black market through the porous borders.

10.3.6.2 Coal production

Significant fluctuation in coal production is attributed to the three changes in ownership (1988, 1992 and 1995) of Mchenga coal mine and the depletion of known reserves. Production continued to fall below the designed capacity of 55,000 tonnes per annum between 1992 and 1999. Coal import levels began to increase because the local consumer purchasing price was higher than for imported coal. Imports, therefore accounted for almost 25% of national production between 1997 and 1999.

In terms of exports, Mchenga coal mine has enjoyed the exportation of coal products to Mbeya in Tanzania at a rate of 21,500 tonnes per annum with a value of MK 39,817,136.

Regarding deforestation, identifiable levels have been noted at Mchenga, Kaziwiziwi, and close to most quarries. Natural forests were depleted through usage as fuelwood by workers and as timber supports in underground operations. This was only reduced after they were obtained from purpose grown plantations in Lusangazi.

10.3.6.3 Lime production

The production of lime rose steadily until 1995, but then declined to the lowest figure in 1997 due to low fuelwood supplies. In 1998, production picked up to 2,600 tonnes and increased by 19% to 3,100 tonnes in 1999. This increase resulted mostly from more organised lime mining activities in the producing areas of Balaka and Lirangwe. Consequently, energy demand in terms of fuelwood was also correspondingly on the increase and deforestation is a clear environmental impact. As pointed out earlier, deforestation as a result of mining activities has also been recognized in lime producing areas.

10.3.6.4 Cement production

Up to 1998, cement production in Malawi was only confined to the Portland Cement Company at their Changalume and Blantyre milling operations with a capacity of 180,000 tonnes per annum. Shayona Cement Corporation at Livwezi in Kasungu District, with a capacity of 30,000 tonnes per annum, is the second cement producer. It operates at 75% capacity due to market demands and increased importation of cheaper cement from Zimbabwe, Zambia and Tanzania. However, the current output by both companies falls short of their combined capacity of 210,000 tonnes per annum which has to be complemented by imports of up to 158,582 tonnes (1998).

10.3.6.5 Sand and gravel collection

Table 10.3.2 shows sand collection estimates and Table 10.3.3 reveals the critical sand and gravel mining areas which have been visited by the Department of Mines and Environmental Affairs officials.

Activities involving sand collection for building purposes are numerous across the country. River sand is collected from rivers which are close to the major urban centres of Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mzuzu, Zomba, Salima and almost all other district centres. Dry season (April to October) collections are estimated to be 20-220 tonnes per day per centre, but figures are not reliable. Dambo sand is predominantly collected in Lilongwe, Mzuzu and Zomba at an estimated rate of 2-60 tonnes per day per centre and used as a plastering ingredient for the construction industry.

Beach sand is collected mainly for water purification plants and borehole construction. Centers that have over the last ten year period recorded more frequent collection include Mangochi, Salima, Nkhata Bay and parts of southern Karonga District at a rate of 35-50 tonnes per day per centre.

Sand collection is done locally by villagers and most recently by large companies involved in borehole drilling. These are not closely monitored by the District Commissioners (District Assemblies) as the Act stipulates. It is, however, apparent that the amount of environmental damage arising from the exercise is immense.

Problems associated with the mining of sand mining include the creation of large voids, especially on beaches and in dambos. With river sand, there is always a chance of regeneration of mined sand pockets of the rivers during the rainy season with sand or soil. With residual dambo sand, gravel pits and beach areas the voids so created become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, riverine animal and human diseases (bilharzia, etc). They also inhibit fish regeneration through disturbance of the breeding grounds, especially in Salima, Mangochi and other lake shore areas. Gravel pits become an eyesore aesthetically, especially when unrehabilitated.

10.3.7 Employment in the mineral sector

Employment in the mineral sector has generally registered steady growth from under 1,500 formal employees before 1985 to 2,500 between 1985 to 1990, to 3,000 between 1990 and 1998 and to 4,867 in 2000. This figure was projected to rise by over 15% in 2001.

These figures only take into account employment in the medium to large scale operations including coal mining and cement production. If artisanal operations (e.g. gemstone and limestone) are taken into account, the numbers are likely to rise in view of the employment ratio of one operator to about 4 to 7 unskilled subordinates involved per operation. The average contribution to employment levels is therefore higher.

10.3.8 Mine accident records

Accidents from mining operations in Malawi are insignificant translating to an average of 0.003 fatalities per shift. The average number of accidents per tonne of ore produced is considerably lower compared to other SADC countries. This however, does not imply that mining safety levels are high, but that probably mining development is still embryonic.

Records for large scale operations show that the number of accidents have been on the increase in the last five years, averaging 0.75 fatalities per year for coal operations and 0.6 for limestone quarrying for cement production. The average levels of minor injuries is 5.6 and as high as 26.5 workers per year for limestone and coal, respectively. Tables 10.3.4 and 10.3.5 reveal the accident record for Portland Cement Company and Mchenga coal mine.

10.3.9 Air quality in mines and quarries

Drilling and blasting are the main sources of dust. Crushing and screening processes that sieve minerals into several desired sizes also produce dust. The other, but not very significant source of dust, is through the off loading of primary and secondary blasted rock into primary crusher shutes.

All quarries in Malawi generate dust into the atmosphere, but only differ in the degree of emission. The rate of dust emission into the atmosphere depends on the size of operation and the type of dust depending on the original rock being exploited. Table 10.3.6 shows the number of quarries that have been operation in Malawi as of 2000 and either have had or did not put in place dust suppression control measures in place. Very few have dust suppression mechanisms through wet screening to contain the problem. The method has, however, proven to reduce the quality of the end products, especially for road stone chippings.

The estimated levels of dust emitted and deposited for over 80% of the quarries is between 300 to 450 mg/m²/day at peak production (SADC Small Scale Mining Manual 1994). According to South African recommended guidelines, this is moderate. Quarries that have caused notable concern to surrounding villages include: Nanjiri (Lilongwe District), Njuli (Chiradzulu District), Lunzu and Soche (Blantyre District), Dunduzu (Mzimba District), Changalume and Domasi (Zomba District) and Kamvula Hill (Dowa District).

Only Changalume limestone quarry has had its emitted dust measured and analysed. Results have shown that about 100mg/m³ is released into the air from raw meal production (Dolozi and Krempp, 1998). Filters have been installed at different points to reduce the emission to less than 100mg/m³.

In addition to quarry dust, Changalume emits fine particulate dust which escapes through the chimney stack into the air. The average emission for kiln number 2 during normal working hours was 16.091mg/m³ (Schukula, 1993). In 1997 this was estimated to have lowered to 15.079 mg/m³ leading to the total dust emitted for the two operating kilns at 889 kg/hr. Further analysis of its constituents at the outlet yielded the following; density (2680 kg/m³), calcium (75.1%), silicon (13.1%), aluminium (5.2%), sodium (0.4%), iron (2.4%), potassium (2.1%) and others (1.69%). As a mitigating measure, Portland Cement Company planned to install electrostatic precipitators in the upper levels of the chimney to trap the dust. MK 30 million has been set aside for the exercise.

The main impacts of this combined dust emission from the kilns and the quarry have been dust settlement on vegetation and buildings, especially in Chingale valley and soil change and water pH leading to low crop and fruit production upon settlement on flowers. Evidently, this has contributed to low agricultural and horticultural production in the Chingale valley. No estimated figures of the exact size of the area involved is available from the Chingale Rural Development Programme.

Also of key concern generally in all quarrying operations is the actual concentration of air borne particulate dust within respirable range. Those larger than 5 micrometre are easily trapped by the nose, while those lower are likely to remain in suspension and hence, amenable to inhaling. Diseases like pneumoconiosis generally arise due to continued exposure to particulates derived mainly from silica, asbestos and other stone related dusts. Since the industry is still in its infancy no established mechanisms have been put in place to examine workers exposed periodically, hence the number of workers that may be affected is not available.

Gaseous quantities, such as carbon dioxide, are emitted through the heating of clinker by the use of coal. The estimated amount of carbon dioxide produced by Portland Cement Company (1990) was 50.1157 Giga tonnes, representing 1.6% of national carbon dioxide emissions. The coal used is sourced from Mchenga and Moatize in Mozambique and has an average sulphur content of <1%. This also releases sulphur dioxide into the air and may lead to acid rain formation. However, with the low level of emission its impact is likely to be minimal.

In September 2000, Portland Cement Company embarked on a two year dust filtration mechanism project, worth MK 3.0 billion to limit dust emission to surrounding areas in accordance with their Total Quality Management as required by ISO 9000.

Another potential impact on air quality by quarrying operations originates from the possible emission of nitrogen oxide fumes that arise from the use of explosives. Emission of these oxides may occur if poor quality explosives having an oxygen imbalance are used and if there is incomplete detonation. This case, although not assessed throughout the history of mining in Malawi, is likely to be insignificant.

Mchenga coal mine also emits considerable coal dust on the crushing and sizing plant along the Mzuzu-Karonga M1 road. Results averaged 0.609 kg/m³ and according to analysis carried out in 1996 (Othsman, 1996). From a control point, the results obtained was 45 mg/l. Such levels of coal dust are obviously hazardous to surrounding habitants. This is emitted to an estimated radial area of up to 2 km² on the windward direction.

Dust from processed and milled lime has not been measured, but appears to be very fine. Of concern are the workers who are continuously exposed during milling, bagging and loading on to lorries. Lime is used for agricultural purposes in de-acidification of acidic soils mostly in the Lirangwe, Balaka and Chilumba areas.

10.3.10 Water pollution by mine operations

From Table 10.3.7 it can be noted that the qualities of water at Mchenga and Changalume are reasonably good by South African standards, which are comparable to those of the WHO (Dolozi and Krempp, 1998; Chifopya et al., 1996). With the exception of coal, Malawi exploits mostly industrial minerals. This implies that very few mines, if any, utilise chemical reagents in the processing of these minerals. It is, therefore, expected that the quality of effluent into water catchment systems is generally good.

The accumulation of sulphates arising from sulphur dioxide entering the atmosphere from usage of coal in furnacing would, however, be of concern. Similarly, another source would be the natural reaction of sulphur in coal with water as it washes into the catchment from coal dust dumps. Used oils and greases from workshops in most of the quarries and mines are also of concern, but data is not readily available.

10.3.11 Solid waste

About 60% of all quarries have problems of solid waste disposal mainly in the form of quarry dust. A number of them, especially those close to urban centers, have alternatively used the waste for the production of cement blocks or for sale to the public for the same use.

Changalume has the most significant solid waste deposition affecting surrounding rivers and dambos covering an estimated combined area greater than three hectares. Siltation arising from particulates and small boulders deposition in parts of Chingale water catchment is very evident.

The other quarries, too, have contributed moderately through overburden waste and quarry dust, although most of the effects have not been quantified.

10.3.12 Noise levels

Noise generated in mines and quarries is through the transportation of minerals from quarry to plant, drilling operations, crushing of ore and blasting or fragmentation of ore.

Operations in Malawi are generally estimated to generate noise of between 80 and 110 decibels depending on the size and distance from the source of operation. Any strange or unusual sound of any decibel level may constitute “noise” if it interrupts an accepted sound pattern. If it persists until it becomes, by repetition part of that pattern, it no longer becomes noise as the ear continues to hear what is familiar. It implies, therefore, that most neighbouring habitants of quarrying operations do not take the sounds they hear as noise as no complaints have been recorded.

Of potential concern is the level of noise related deafness, mainly in drillers and machine operators. No evaluation and hence, records are not available of this relationship.

10.3.13 Ground water depletion

With the low level of mining operations in Malawi by regional standards, there is very little evidence of ground water depletion being an environmental problem. Almost all mines and quarries are dependent on ground and river resources for water requirements, but there is no evidence of the lowering of water tables due to mining operations and consequently it is not a major problem in Malawi.

The geology of most of Malawi (except the rift valley escarpments in the north and south) is igneous and metamorphic whose permeability gradients are low. Consequently, groundwater pollution tends to travel shorter distances, thus giving rise to very minimal effects.

10.3.14 Ground subsidence

Mchenga, the only underground working mine in Malawi, has suffered ground failure due to weakening of pillars. Although the room and pillar method used proved to be geotechnically stable, the relative strength of the pillars could not withstand overburden pressure despite overlying rocks depicting high strength over the 12 year period of operation. Linear and parallel cracks (of 10 to 20 cm) resulted from subsidence. Of major concern are those close to the edge of the cliff, but running parallel to the North Rumphi River. Accumulation of water within the cracks during the rainy season could lead to sizeable failure. There is thus strong need to thoroughly and continuously investigate the expected effects before a disaster occurs. The use of extension meters or other improvised methods should be employed.

10.3.15 Unprotected ex-mined openings

Due to the infancy of the mining industry, unprotected mine openings are not of considerable concern, except the two gold workings in Lisungwe valley, which were worked in the 1950s. There are also numerous small gemstone, limestone and clay pits, which are scattered across the country. These are mostly in Mzimba, Ntcheu, Balaka, Blantyre and Chitipa Districts. Some of them are up to 12-15 m deep and as much as 20m long and almost 10m wide. Table 10.3.8 reveals the number of pits larger than 5m³ in Mzimba District.

Some of the unprotected pits and trenches become breeding grounds for mosquitoes during rainy seasons and tend to trap children, cattle and wild animals upon falling in. A policy change of the “polluter pays principle” through a fund would help to control this problem.

10.3.16 Heavy and poisonous metals

The problem of heavy metal pollution is not a significant issue in Malawi. In general, the heavy metals, such as gold, lead, arsenic and cadmium might enter the soil through mineral processing facilities and tailing dumps.

Strong monitoring mechanisms need to be put in place as gold winning methods through mercury almagamation are known to be commonly used in Mozambique and may spill over into Malawi.

10.3.17 Response to mines and the environment

Management strategies to contain degradation are already imbedded within the Mines and Minerals Act and Environment Management Act. However, these are only true for large scale mining operations where EIAs have to be performed prior to exploration and exploitation authorisation. The degradation arising from small-scale operations are equally significant and thus they require preparations of baseline studies before the granting of licenses. These would form a reference point for quantifying environmental effects.

Monitoring mechanisms have been established in the decentralisation process through the creation of Environmental District Officers. Joint inspections by the EDOs and the Mines inspectorate do take place where mining operations are concerned, but have been limited to a few districts and operations. This has been limited due to inadequate institutional capacity within the Department of Mines. Within the new inspectorate structure an added responsibility has been assigned to the inspectors to cover mining environmental issues collaboratively with the Environmental Affairs Department.

With limited mining data arising from monitoring aspects, the Department of Mines is in the process of expanding the activities of the Mineral Processing Laboratory to include the creation of a Mines Environmental Laboratory to specifically monitor operations during all mining stages of exploration, design, development, operation and decommissioning.

Through frequent exchanges with the SADC Mining Environmental Committee, Malawi is in the process of adopting standards for airborne pollutants, water quality, effluent discharge limits and other relevant standards for the minerals industry.

Research into efficient energy use is continuously being undertaken, adopted and encouraged, to ensure that mining activities minimally contribute to degradation of other sectors. This includes the use of more efficient kilns for lime burning as is the case in the Balaka, Chilumba and Lirangwe areas. Similarly, efforts are underway to encourage brick burners to adopt the new environmental technology that uses cleaner chemical fuels.

Current mining legislation was developed in the early eighties. Many aspects have obviously changed with time. Efforts are being made to review both the mining policy as a whole and the legislation to move with regional conditions and current times. Environmental aspects are no exception and need to be looked into critically to include the ‘polluter pays principle’ or a mining environmental fund to be contributed into by operators. This would entail recovery from the fund by operators upon complete and proper rehabilitation before decommissioning.

10.3.18 Recommendations

• Besides being equipped with a legislation that ensures that EIAs are undertaken before operations are implemented on the ground, efforts should be made in capacity building in the Department of Mines.

• Strong collaboration and links must be developed between Mines and Environmental Affairs Department to ensure collective monitoring of mining activities. A comprehensive database should be developed and produced jointly from district to national level on environmental mining related activities for future and baseline use.

• A progressive funding system for the rehabilitation of mining operations after closure or decommissioning should be set up. This can be embedded within the application fees and operators can only be refunded upon successful rehabilitation of the activity.

• A mining environmental laboratory should be instituted and funded by the Treasury or be vigorously pursued for funding by donors. Environmental management programmes submitted after thorough EIAs would only be effectively monitored through periodic sampling and evaluation through this laboratory.

• Mining specific environmental monitoring and evaluation projects should be developed to create a database on mining activities.

• Mine/quarry environmental and safety competitions in other SADC countries have proven to be a very effective mode of ensuring that environmental control and awareness is achieved.

Figure 10.2.1 Petroleum importation (million litres)

Source: National Statistical Office, 1998

Table 10.3.1 Summary of licenses granted by category 1983 - 1999

Source: Department of Mines, 2000

MCL = Mining Claim Licence, NEPL = Non-Exclusive Prospecting Licence, RL = Reconnaissance Licence, EPL = Exclusive Prospecting Licence, ML = Mining Licence

Table 10.3.2 Sand collection estimates (tonnes/day)

Sand type	Zomba	Blantyre	Lilongwe	Mzuzu	Salima	Mangochi
Dambo			60.0	30.0	2.0-5.0	20.0
River	30.0	120.0	220.0	20.0	40.0	35.0
Beach					35-40	50.0

Source: Department of Mines, 1992 and 2000

Table 10.1.1 Solid waste disposal sites in Blantyre

Year	Site
1970-1980	Off Michiru road
1980-1990	Soche quarry near Chinyonga
1990	East of Chileka
1991	Chigumula Forestry reserve
1992-Present	Mzedi landfill site

Source: Department of Mines, 2000

*** = Very critical and requires licencing and monitoring

** = Moderate and not yet out of hand

* = Minor

Dambo Sand	River Sand	Beach Sand	Gravel and other mineral products
Lilongwe Area 47*** Bwaila*** Likuni ** Mzuzu Chiwavi** Katoto* Luwinga* Chasefu* Zolozolo* Blantyre** Zomba* Mangochi*	Lilongwe Lilongwe River** Likuni River** Lingadzi River Linthipe Salima** Dedza* Zomba Likangala River* Mulunguzi River*	Mangochi Nkope Bay ** Monkey Bay * Salima Senga Bay** Livingstonia** Kachere* Katelera* Karonga Chilumba* Nkhota Kota Jetty** Nkhata Bay Boma* Chintheche**	All road construction sites have gravel pits of different sizes Lilongwe Ngwenya hill** Ntcheu Dzonzi Senzani Mvai* Rumphi Kaziwiziwi* Salima Maganga* Mwanza* Kambala* Khombeza*

Table 10.3.3 Critical sand and gravel and quarry dust/waste mining areas in Malawi

Licence type	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999
MCL	11	11	10	11	18	14	12	20	11	4	4	7	6	8	2	1	15
NEPL	25	18	49	26	30	147	173	84	236	37	29	33	22	52	66	79	40
RL	1	0	1	4	6	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3
EPL	1	1	0	3	3	0	0	8	2	2	3	1